Who counts as one of us: citizenship from ancient Rome to civic nationalism
October 9, 2026 · 26 min read
Gregory Aldrete calls integrating outsiders Rome's secret weapon, Anthony Kaldellis explains the edict that gave citizenship to all, Christopher Capozzola shows how World War I redefined American citizenship, Vivek Ramaswamy argues for civic nationalism over blood and soil, and Darryl Cooper describes America's renegotiated identity around immigration. Each case is an argument about who belongs and on what terms, which puts today's fights over immigration and national identity into a much longer story.
The rules, numbers and steps worth keeping in front of you.
- Core pattern: belonging is always offered on terms, such as service, loyalty, creed or lineage.
- Aldrete: Rome gave conquered Italian cities full or partial citizenship or alliance in exchange for troops.
- Aldrete: Rome lost about 60,000 of 80,000 men at Cannae in one afternoon and still won the war.
- Aldrete: the imperial army had about 250,000 legionaries and 250,000 auxiliaries; auxiliaries earned citizenship after 25 years.
- Aldrete: only about 6 million of roughly 50 million people in the second-century empire were citizens.
- Aldrete caution: early integration was easy because the Italians shared Rome's language and gods; "true others" were harder.
- Kaldellis: Caracalla's 212 AD edict made nearly all free inhabitants citizens, and within a generation provincials ran the empire.
- Kaldellis: a shared tax system, law and identity kept local communities loyal.
- Capozzola: citizenship means legal rights and obligations plus a looser sense of belonging.
- Capozzola: in World War I, about 24 million registered for the draft, about 4 million served, and at least half a million never registered.
- Capozzola warning: loyalty-based citizenship brought surveillance of German Americans, labor organizers and resisters, but obligations also spurred demands for rights.
- Ramaswamy: American identity is a creed, not blood and soil; choose immigrants by English, assimilation, civic knowledge and economic contribution.
- Cooper: America renegotiates its identity every generation, but nations like Ireland have a right to remain themselves.
- Test any society: can newcomers reach real power, or only serve as workers and soldiers?
This is the short form. The full insight has every expert's reasoning, their own words and the sources.